The Children's Machine: Computers and language development

Context
I produced this (in a hurry as usual) as a bit of theoretical and practical background to an essentially hands-on in-service session I was running for a secondary school learning support department back in 1997. It's fascinating to come across this now and note the rapid advances that have been made in software since then: it reads like an historical document - which of course it is - so please make allowances. Many of the points, though, are still valid. There are some references in the text but no bibliography. However, I think you'll find most of the books in the books section of this site and the others are contained in the pdf file, "Computer databases and language uses". (Click here to download) The title, of course, was borrowed from one of Papert's books.
SM 29/2/00

Today
If you get bored trying out the different programs that are available, you might want to get your teeth into a bit of theoretical background about the way computers have been used to help develop children's language skills and competencies. It may answer a few questions and / or concerns you have about how something as vibrant and alive as language can be developed when a child is sitting in front of a computer . . . If this bores you even more then this paper is good for resting coffee mugs on. Feel free to use it in this way if you want to. I've also included a little about how I've used I.T. to help with language-related work. If you want more detail, have a look at some of the books from the bibliography . . .

Early developments
Early developments in the use of computers in language work were often based on programs from the United States (like many of those you're reviewing today) where the learning model was based on Skinner rather than Piaget. This kind of Behaviourist model of learning, with the interaction mainly between child and machine, caused many to think that,

"the computer cannot initiate, or evaluate communicative activities.... It is likewise unable to implement student-student interaction or to promote a physical teaching environment encouraging group participation."
(Odendaal, M., 1982)

Welford provided an idea of the kind of computer program which may develop language skills,

"We should be looking towards developing computer programs to assist students and teachers to explore new environments, from very simple situations to quite complex models. The computer can then be used as a catalyst to promote activities beyond the scope of the computer program."
(Welford, R.J., 1984, p.47)

The key words here seem to be "assist", "explore" and "catalyst." Kelly noted that, "the major advantage of the computer is not that it can think for one but that it makes one think." (Kelly, A.V., 1984, p.xiv)

The most powerful uses of the computer may be those which promote exploratory learning in a situation where the child is required to communicate with others and use skills of writing, talking, listening and reading. This fits well with recent developments in the understanding of children's learning which has moved away from a Piagetian view of the child as a "lone cognizing organism" (von Glasersfeld, 1989) to one where

"most learning in most settings is a communal activity, a sharing of culture."
(Bruner, J.S., 1986, p.127)

The work of L.S. Vygotsky is central to these developments. Here, language and thought come together to create a cognitive "tool" for human development where,

"Children solve practical tasks with the help of their speech, as well as their eyes and hands."
(Vygotsky, L.S., 1978, p.26)

Knowledge is created socially by communicative interaction with others. The question, then, is what kind of computer programs, applications and activities promote this kind of social, communicative interaction?

Promoting social communicative activity
There are two important factors here. They are the program itself and the way in which it is used. To develop communicative activity, many authors consider that programs should be used by groups / pairs of children rather than by individuals or in a full class situation. Drill and practice programs are unlikely to develop the full range of communicative activity, but they are valuable in particular situations.

Drill and practice programs
Programs used by a child on their own, as, for example, "Speaking Starspell" is likely to be, may develop particular discrete areas of language. Programs used in this way are valuable where a highly structured, repetitive and cumulative approach to one area of language has been recommended (as is usually the case with SpLD children). They also allow the child to make mistakes and receive instant feedback - in private. This may help those children who are lacking in confidence as they know their "work" is being "marked" (consistently) by machine rather than by either a teacher they may not like or by one of their peers who they'd rather not expose their weaknesses to? The best programs are ones which are educationally sound, well-written and fun to use. Can you identify any that meet these criteria?

Adventure programs
("Granny's Garden", "Guardians of the Greenwood" and "Mouse in Holland")
When Granny's Garden was fairly new I had the opportunity to video groups of Special Needs and EAL children (at Stage 2 I'd estimate now) working together on the program. After transcribing the talk and analysing it I was able to show (or so I thought) a little of what went on. This was what I concluded then (1985):

"The children paid close attention to each other's contributions: recalling past actions; using it to plan future action and, in some cases, predicting possible outcomes of the planned action. In the process they formulated and reformulated their individual and joint knowledge in order to solve the problems they faced: they used language successfully in the given context."

This seems to happen whenever this type of program is used. Many others have made and reported similar observations.

The best recent adventures / simulations of reality are fully multimedia (see "Guardians of the Greenwood" for example). This makes them more interesting (or does it??) These recent ones also have relevance to curricular areas other than English / language. "Guardians" has a very strong environmental theme to it, and much could be made of this. "A Mouse in Holland" has much good geographical knowledge.

A possible disadvantage to multimedia programs is that the children listen to the story as it is read to them but don't follow the story on screen. Their listening skills may improve but not their reading. "Guardians" is not particularly targeted at children with poorer reading skills. The language used is at a deliberately high level but can, of course, be listened to. Is this a good feature or not? What do you think?

Content-free or generic software
This includes word-processing software, databases, spreadsheets and hypertext authoring software. (Encarta is an example of a hypertext. It is text which may contain sound, pictures and links to other texts which can be reached just by clicking the mouse pointer on the relevant section of text.)
They are "empty" software. That is, you or the children add the content. Used carefully, in a planned way, they have in common that, in some way or other, they reduce the learning burden on the child so that they are able to show more completely what they are capable of. The different ways that various aspects of I.T. achieve this, with some examples of how I've used I.T., (usually with SpLD children) are outlined below.

Word-processing
Word-processing is one example of an "emancipatory" I.T. application, in that it reduces the amount of "inauthentic" labour.

When one of my Year 9 SpLD pupils began to word-process his work there was a noticeable improvement in the marks he was getting for homeworks and project work. He also found it much easier.

If word-processing is a paired or group effort, then collaborative learning and language may be developed, so that again all the language skills of reading, writing, listening and talking are used. The improved visibility of the text on screen where it is easier to be seen by all of the group seems to help the process of collaboration. And, because amendments are easier to make, there is more editing and manipulation of the text.

Although creating writing using a word-processor is perhaps the most valuable use, copying out of pre-written work is more valuable than many people consider. In this case, the child or children have to read and reconsider what they have written. Very few just copy what they have written, amendments are made all of the time. For all children, but perhaps particularly for children with SpLD, where one child reads and then dictates to the other what to key in, i.e. verbalises the text, would seem to be a valuable activity. This type of activity works very well where an SpLD child is insecure and/or very reluctant to accept support which singles them out, for, if it is an integral part of the class lesson, and the child's partner is non-SpLD, then they can be taking part in a valuable activity without realising it! (And, of course it is multisensory, especially where the SpLD child is doing the reading and dictating and having to spell words out to their partner).

Where the teacher, or more competent other, is the collaborative partner, keying in for the child, then text can be entered at a rate which helps the child maintain his train of thought, and, because there is no messy crossing out required, suggested changes seem to be more readily accepted. One example of this kind of collaborative writing is "No Retreat: No Surrender". The author was a Year 7 pupil with SpLD. He was becoming increasingly frustrated at his inability to write down and develop the ideas he had for a story. I acted as his secretary and sounding board for his ideas and ways of expressing them. The finished story is essentially his. He was delighted with the finished result and sent it out to his father who was working in Nigeria.

In passing, it is worth noting that most modern word-processsors offer the facility to zoom in on the text to allow magnification up to say 400% or larger, which may be particularly valuable for SpLD children. One of the children I supported, regularly either used a large font or zoomed in on the text. Plus, both on-screen text and background colour may be changed to a combination which may make reading easier. On-line spell-checkers, grammar-checkers and thesauruses may help with the final product, but need skill to be used successfully. Their use does not guarantee "perfect" work.
Predictive word-processors, where the computer makes a guess at the word the child is keying in after the first few letters may be useful, as may word-processors which speak the text.
Most recently, voice input has been perfected which could help many of "our" children.
Software also exists which will read the children's work to them as they type it in. One reasonably priced example of this is "textHELP!" from Lorien Software.

Databases
Databases are collections of structured information (or, more strictly, data), which, used carefully, can provide a framework within which the child can work. Where children create their own databases there is a need for careful ordering of information which may be a valuable learning activity.

Many authors have now commented on databases, learning and language. For example, on databases, Chandler notes that these help children to develop, "a more systematic approach to problem-solving," and that they can provide a "framework" for effective learning, (Chandler, D., 1984, P.55). Millum also notes that children's use of databases provides an "effective means of focusing on precision in language." (Millum, T., 1992, p.45.) And, in passing, he believes that, "I.T. facilitates collaborative work," (P.49). Finally, Lynch, (1991), noted that they may create an environment which "promotes oracy" (P.78) and that "the public nature of the work displayed on the screen means that collaboration is far easier." (p.5)

Because databases are empty at first, you, or the children, have to create them. This takes time but can be very valuable. I developed an activity, which used a database as its core resource, to help develop (initially) EAL children's language in a middle school. Since then it has grown and grown, but may be reaching the end of its useful life now.

Essentially, the activity is a focus and a stimulus for children to read, write, talk and listen, and to organise a structured search for information. As part of my MA course I videoed groups of children using the activity and then analysed what was happening. One part of my conclusion commented on the contribution of the database:

"The database's main contribution could be seen in the provision of a structured context within which the children were able to use their own language. It helped them to explore the task systematically, presenting information to them only on their request and in what Papert would term, 'mind-sized bites.'"

Probably the key words here, for children with SEN, and particularly SpLD, are, "structured context", "systematically" and "mind-sized bites" of information, (again!) The children who used it certainly liked it and many came in at lunchtime to continue with it. This has to be good?

Hypertexts and hypertext authoring software
If you've used "Encarta" then you know what a hypertext is. It is text, pictures and sound all linked together which you navigate by clicking the mouse pointer on relevant parts of the screen. There's lots of software of this type around now. Most CD-ROMs are hypertexts of some sort or another.
Commercially produced hypertexts may not be suitable for some children - too large, complex and with a high reading age. To meet their needs you can produce your own using hypertext authoring software. "HyperStudio" from TAG Developments is one much used authoring package. (This began as an Apple Mac program - so I guess we have it in school somewhere. A PC version is available and should now be a true hypertext package: at first it wasn't.)
Producing your own hypertext takes quite a lot of time and not a little skill (despite what the ads tell you.) I've tried it using information (text, pictures and sounds) that I gathered from the Internet. The results were O.K. but not outstanding - but proved valuable to a group of Year 7 students who were struggling with a project on the Inuit. (If I had time, one of these hypertext examples, prob. the one about the Amazon Rainforest, may be on one of the computers.) As authoring software becomes easier to use then customised hypertexts may become more useful and used.

Simon Midgley 1997 (modified slightly for web display, Feb.2000)

If you need Adobe Reader to read the .pdf file click this link